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Personal development

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="Personality_development" title="Personality development">personality development</a> or <a href="Recursive_self-improvement" title="Recursive self-improvement">recursive self-improvement</a>.</div>

Personal development or self-improvement consists of activities that develops a person's capabilities and potential, enhance <a href="Quality_of_life" title="Quality of life">quality of life</a>, and facilitate the realization of dreams and aspirations.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> Personal development may take place over the course of an individual's entire lifespan and is not limited to one stage of a person's life. It can include official and informal actions for developing others in roles such as a teacher, guide, counselor, manager, coach, or mentor, and it is not restricted to self-help. When personal development takes place in the context of <a href="Institution" title="Institution">institutions</a>, it refers to the methods, programs, tools, techniques, and assessment systems offered to support <a href="Positive_adult_development" title="Positive adult development">positive adult development</a> at the individual level in <a href="Organization" title="Organization">organizations</a>.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Education" title="Education">Education</a></div>

Among other things, personal development may include the following activities:<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a>

<ul><li><a href="Social_entrepreneurship" title="Social entrepreneurship">Social entrepreneurship</a> or <a href="Civic_engagement" title="Civic engagement">civic engagement</a></li>

<li>Participating in <a href="Festivals" class="mw-redirect" title="Festivals">festivals</a>, <a href="Conferences" class="mw-redirect" title="Conferences">conferences</a>, or <a href="Convention_(meeting)" title="Convention (meeting)">conventions</a></li>

<li>Improving <a href="Self-awareness" title="Self-awareness">self-awareness</a></li>

<li>Improving <a href="Self-knowledge_(psychology)" title="Self-knowledge (psychology)">self-knowledge</a></li>

<li>Improving <a href="Skills" class="mw-redirect" title="Skills">skills</a> and/or learning new ones</li>

<li>Building or renewing <a href="Identity_(social_science)" title="Identity (social science)">identity</a>/<a href="Self-esteem" title="Self-esteem">self-esteem</a></li>

<li>Developing strengths or talents</li>

<li>Improving a <a href="Career" title="Career">career</a></li>

<li>Identifying or improving <a href="Human_potential_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Human potential movement">potential</a></li>

<li>Building employability or (alternatively) human capital</li>

<li>Enhancing <a href="Lifestyle_(sociology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lifestyle (sociology)">lifestyle</a> and/or the quality of life and <a href="Time_management" title="Time management">time management</a> calculating the <a href="Return_on_time_invested" title="Return on time invested">return on time invested</a>.</li>

<li>Improving <a href="Health" title="Health">health</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_mobility" title="Social mobility">Improving</a> <a href="Wealth_management" title="Wealth management">wealth</a> or <a href="Social_status" title="Social status">social status</a></li>

<li>Fulfilling aspirations</li>

<li>Initiating a life enterprise</li>

<li>Defining and executing <a href="Personal_development_planning" title="Personal development planning">personal development plans</a> (PDPs)</li>

<li>Improving <a href="Social_relation" title="Social relation">social relations</a> or <a href="Emotional_intelligence" title="Emotional intelligence">emotional intelligence</a></li>

<li><a href="Spirituality" title="Spirituality">Spiritual</a> identity development and recognition</li></ul>

A distinction can be made between personal development and personal growth. Although similar, both concepts portray different ideas. Personal development specifies the focus of the "what" that is evolving, while personal growth entails a much more holistic view of broader concepts including morals and values being developed.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a>

Recent scholarship has noted parallels between personal-development frameworks and structured therapeutic models used in psychology, which also emphasize goal setting, staged progress, and feedback systems to support sustained change.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a>

Personal development can also include developing other people's skills and personalities.<a href="#cite_note-:4-10">[10]</a> This can happen through roles such as those of a teacher or mentor, either through a personal competency (such as the alleged skill of certain <a href="Management" title="Management">managers</a> in developing the potential of employees) or through a professional service (such as providing training, assessment, or coaching).<a href="#cite_note-:4-10">[10]</a>

Beyond improving oneself and developing others, "personal development" labels a field of practice and research:

<ul><li>As a field of practice, personal development includes personal-development methods, learning programs, assessment systems, tools, and techniques.</li>

<li>As a field of research, personal-development topics appear in psychology journals, education research, management journals and books, and <a href="Human_development_(humanity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Human development (humanity)">human-development</a> economics.</li></ul>

Any sort of development—whether economic, political, biological, organizational or personal—requires a <a href="Framework_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Framework (disambiguation)">framework</a> if one wishes to know whether a change has actually occurred.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> In the case of personal development, an individual often functions as the primary judge of improvement or of regression, but the validation of objective improvement requires assessment using standard criteria.

Personal-Development frameworks may include:

<ul><li>Goals or benchmarks that define the end-points</li>

<li>Strategies or plans for reaching goals</li>

<li>Measurement and assessment of progress, levels or stages that define milestones along a development path</li>

<li>A feedback system to provide information on changes<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="As_an_industry">As an industry</h2></div>

Personal development as an <a href="Industry_(economics)" title="Industry (economics)">industry</a><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> has several business-relationship formats of operating. The main ways are <a href="Business-to-consumer" class="mw-redirect" title="Business-to-consumer">business-to-consumer</a> and <a href="Business-to-business" title="Business-to-business">business-to-business</a>.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> However, there have been two new ways emerge: <a href="Consumer-to-business" title="Consumer-to-business">consumer-to-business</a> and <a href="Consumer-to-consumer" class="mw-redirect" title="Consumer-to-consumer">consumer-to-consumer</a>.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> The personal development market had a global market size of 38.28 billion dollars in 2019.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Business-to-consumer_market">Business-to-consumer market</h3></div>

A wide array of personal development products are available to individuals. Examples include <a href="Self-help_books" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-help books">self-help books</a>; <a href="Education_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Education technology">education technology</a>, <a href="Neuroenhancement" title="Neuroenhancement">neuroenhancement</a>, and <a href="Experiential_learning" title="Experiential learning">experiential learning</a> (<a href="Instructor-led_training" title="Instructor-led training">instructor-led training</a>, <a href="Motivational_speaking" class="mw-redirect" title="Motivational speaking">motivational speeches</a>, <a href="Seminars" class="mw-redirect" title="Seminars">seminars</a>, social or <a href="Retreat_(spiritual)" title="Retreat (spiritual)">spiritual</a> retreats).

<ul><li>Domains

<ul><li><a href="Higher_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Higher education">Higher education</a>, <a href="Cognitive_training" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognitive training">cognitive training</a></li>

<li><a href="Personal_finance" title="Personal finance">Personal finance</a></li>

<li><a href="Weight_loss" title="Weight loss">Weight loss</a>, <a href="Physical_fitness" title="Physical fitness">physical fitness</a>, <a href="Human_Nutrition" class="mw-redirect" title="Human Nutrition">nutrition</a>, and <a href="Cosmetology" title="Cosmetology">beauty enhancement</a></li>

<li><a href="Large-group_awareness_training" title="Large-group awareness training">Large-group awareness training</a></li>

<li><a href="Float_tank" class="mw-redirect" title="Float tank">Sensory deprivation</a></li>

<li><a href="Time-management" class="mw-redirect" title="Time-management">Time-management</a></li>

<li><a href="Martial_arts" title="Martial arts">Martial arts</a></li>

<li><a href="Initiation_ceremonies" class="mw-redirect" title="Initiation ceremonies">Initiation ceremonies</a></li>

<li><a href="Meditation" title="Meditation">Meditation</a></li>

<li><a href="Asceticism" title="Asceticism">Asceticism</a></li></ul></li>

<li>General methods of personal development also include:

<ul><li><a href="Life_coaching" class="mw-redirect" title="Life coaching">Life coaching</a> or <a href="List_of_counseling_topics" class="mw-redirect" title="List of counseling topics">counseling</a></li>

<li><a href="Recommendation_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Recommendation systems">Recommendation systems</a></li>

<li><a href="Nootropics" class="mw-redirect" title="Nootropics">Nootropics</a>, such as <a href="Caffeinated_drink" title="Caffeinated drink">caffeinated drinks</a></li>

<li><a href="Brain_computer_interface" class="mw-redirect" title="Brain computer interface">Brain computer interface</a></li>

<li><a href="Virtual_assistant" title="Virtual assistant">Virtual assistant</a></li></ul></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Business-to-business_market">Business-to-business market</h3></div>

Some <a href="Management_consulting" title="Management consulting">consulting firms</a> such as <a href="Development_Dimensions_International" title="Development Dimensions International">DDI</a> and <a href="FranklinCovey" title="FranklinCovey">FranklinCovey</a> specialize in personal development, but as of 2009 generalist firms operating in the fields of human resources, recruitment and organizational strategy—such as <a href="Hewitt_Associates" class="mw-redirect" title="Hewitt Associates">Hewitt</a>, <a href="Watson_Wyatt_Worldwide" title="Watson Wyatt Worldwide">Watson Wyatt Worldwide</a>, <a href="Hay_Group" class="mw-redirect" title="Hay Group">Hay Group</a>, <a href="McKinsey_%26_Company" title="McKinsey & Company">McKinsey</a>, <a href="Boston_Consulting_Group" title="Boston Consulting Group">Boston Consulting Group</a>, and <a href="Korn/Ferry" class="mw-redirect" title="Korn/Ferry">Korn/Ferry</a>—have entered what they perceive as a growing market, not to mention smaller firms and self-employed professionals who provide consulting, training and coaching.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origins">Origins</h2></div>

Major religions—such as the age-old <a href="Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic</a> and <a href="Indian_religions" title="Indian religions">Indian religions</a>—as well as 20th-century <a href="New_Age" title="New Age">New Age</a> philosophies have variously used practices such as <a href="Prayer" title="Prayer">prayer</a>, <a href="Music" title="Music">music</a>, <a href="Dance" title="Dance">dance</a>, <a href="Singing" title="Singing">singing</a>, <a href="Chanting" class="mw-redirect" title="Chanting">chanting</a>, <a href="Poetry" title="Poetry">poetry</a>, <a href="Writing" title="Writing">writing</a>, <a href="Sport" title="Sport">sports</a> and martial arts.

<a href="Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Michel Foucault</a> describes in Care of the Self<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> the techniques of epimelia used in <a href="Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greece</a> and Rome, which included <a href="Dieting" title="Dieting">dieting</a>, <a href="Exercise" title="Exercise">exercise</a>, <a href="Sexual_abstinence" title="Sexual abstinence">sexual abstinence</a>, <a href="Contemplation" title="Contemplation">contemplation</a>, prayer, and <a href="Confession_(religion)" title="Confession (religion)">confession</a>—some of which also became practices within different branches of <a href="Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>.

<a href="Wushu_(sport)" title="Wushu (sport)">Wushu</a> and <a href="Tai_chi" title="Tai chi">tai chi</a> utilize traditional Chinese techniques, including breathing and <a href="Qi" title="Qi">qi</a> exercises, meditation, martial arts, as well as practices linked to <a href="Traditional_Chinese_medicine" title="Traditional Chinese medicine">traditional Chinese medicine</a>, such as dieting, <a href="Massage" title="Massage">massage</a>, and <a href="Acupuncture" title="Acupuncture">acupuncture</a>.

Two individual ancient philosophical traditions: those of Aristotle (Western tradition) and Confucius (Eastern tradition) stand out<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> and contribute to the worldwide view of "personal development" in the 21st century. Elsewhere anonymous or named founders of schools of self-development appear endemic—note the traditions of the Indian sub-continent in this regard.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="South_Asian_traditions">South Asian traditions</h3></div>

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Some <a href="Ancient_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient India">ancient Indians</a> aspired to "beingness, wisdom and happiness".<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a>

Paul Oliver suggests that the popularity of Indian traditions for a personal developer may lie in their relative lack of prescriptive doctrine.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Islamic_personal_development">Islamic personal development</h3></div>

Khurram Murad describes that personal development in <a href="Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> is to work towards eternal life in <a href="Jannah" title="Jannah">Jannuh</a>. There are many avenues in the journey to paradise, such as devoted practicing of the laws of the <a href="Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a> and <a href="Sunnah" title="Sunnah">Sunnah</a>, such as optimized service towards the self and others. Sincere worship of <a href="Allah" title="Allah">Allah</a> is the foundation for self-discovery and self-development.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> Allah has provided ways to help those striving towards eternal life, including staying away from things of the world. These worldly things can distract those away from the path to paradise. It does not mean worldly success is inherently disruptive but can become so when spiritual beliefs do not align with the Sunnah. In the end, paradise will bring satisfaction to those working on their personal development because of the pleasure that comes from Allah.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aristotle_and_the_Western_tradition">Aristotle and the Western tradition</h3></div>

The Greek philosopher <a href="Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> (384 BCE – 322 BCE) wrote <a href="Nicomachean_Ethics" title="Nicomachean Ethics">Nicomachean Ethics</a>, in which he defined personal development as a category of <a href="Phronesis" title="Phronesis">phronesis</a> or practical wisdom, where the practice of virtues (arête) leads to <a href="Eudaimonia" title="Eudaimonia">eudaimonia</a>,<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> commonly translated as "happiness" but more accurately understood as "human flourishing" or "living well".<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> Aristotle continues to influence the Western concept of personal development to this day, particularly in the economics of human development<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> and in <a href="Positive_psychology" title="Positive psychology">positive psychology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Confucius_and_the_East_Asian_tradition">Confucius and the East Asian tradition</h3></div>

In Chinese tradition, <a href="Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a> (around 551 BCE – 479 BCE) founded an ongoing philosophy. His ideas continue to influence <a href="Family_values" title="Family values">family values</a>, education and personnel management in China and East Asia. In his <a href="Great_Learning" title="Great Learning">Great Learning</a> Confucius wrote:

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</style><blockquote class="templatequote">The ancients who wished to illustrate illustrious virtue throughout the kingdom first ordered well their own states. Wishing to order well their states, they first regulated their families. Wishing to regulate their families, they first cultivated their persons. Wishing to cultivate their persons, they first rectified their hearts. Wishing to rectify their hearts, they first sought to be sincere in their thoughts. Wishing to be sincere in their thoughts, they first extended to the utmost their knowledge. Such extension of knowledge lay in the investigation of things.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a></blockquote>

In contemporary China, personal development remain a salient priority in social life, and is shaped by diverse traditions, including Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism, as well as modern influences such as communist ideas of citizenship and capitalist conceptions of human capital. <a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> Young adults in particular must navigate different social roles and values as they seek to become socioeconomically competent citizens.

Preview of referen

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Contexts">Contexts</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Psychology">Psychology</h3></div>

<a href="Psychology" title="Psychology">Psychology</a> became linked to personal development in the early 20th century starting with the research efforts of <a href="Alfred_Adler" title="Alfred Adler">Alfred Adler</a> (1870–1937) and <a href="Carl_Jung" title="Carl Jung">Carl Jung</a> (1875–1961).

Adler refused to limit psychology to analysis alone. He made the important point that aspirations focus on looking forward and do not limit themselves to unconscious drives or to childhood experiences.<a href="#cite_note-:0-34">[34]</a> He also originated the concepts of lifestyle (1929—he defined "lifestyle" as an individual's characteristic approach to life, in facing problems) and of <a href="Self_image" class="mw-redirect" title="Self image">self-image</a>,<a href="#cite_note-:0-34">[34]</a> as a concept that influenced management under the heading of <a href="Work-life_balance" class="mw-redirect" title="Work-life balance">work-life balance</a>, also known as the equilibrium between a person's career and personal life.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a>

Carl Gustav Jung made contributions to personal development with his concept of <a href="Individuation" title="Individuation">individuation</a>, which he saw as the drive of the individual to achieve the wholeness and balance of the <a href="Self_(psychology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Self (psychology)">Self</a>.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a>

<a href="Daniel_Levinson" title="Daniel Levinson">Daniel Levinson</a> (1920–1994) developed Jung's early concept of "<a href="Developmental_stage_theories" title="Developmental stage theories">life stages</a>" and included a sociological perspective. Levinson proposed that personal development comes under the influence—throughout <a href="Personal_life" title="Personal life">life</a>—of aspirations, which he called "the Dream":

<blockquote class="templatequote">Whatever the nature of his Dream, a young man has the developmental task of giving it greater definition and finding ways to live it out. It makes a great difference in his growth whether his initial life structure is consonant with and infused by the Dream, or opposed to it. If the Dream remains unconnected to his life it may simply die, and with it his sense of aliveness and purpose.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a></blockquote>

Research on success in reaching goals, as undertaken by <a href="Albert_Bandura" title="Albert Bandura">Albert Bandura</a> (1925–2021), suggested that <a href="Self-efficacy" title="Self-efficacy">self-efficacy</a><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> best explains why people with the same level of knowledge and skills get very different results. Having self-efficacy leads to an increased likelihood of success. According to Bandura <a href="Self-confidence" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-confidence">self-confidence</a> functions as a powerful predictor of success because:<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a>

<ol><li>It causes you to expect to succeed</li>

<li>It allows you take risks and set challenging goals</li>

<li>It helps you keep trying if at first you do not succeed</li>

<li>It helps you control emotions and fears when life may throw more difficult things your way</li></ol>

In 1998 <a href="Martin_Seligman" title="Martin Seligman">Martin Seligman</a> won election to a one-year term as President of the <a href="American_Psychological_Association" title="American Psychological Association">American Psychological Association</a> and proposed a new focus: on healthy individuals<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> rather than on pathology (he created the "positive psychology" current)

<blockquote class="templatequote">We have discovered that there is a set of human strengths that are the most likely buffers against mental illness: courage, optimism, interpersonal skill, work ethic, hope, honesty and perseverance. Much of the task of prevention will be to create a science of human strength whose mission will be to foster these virtues in young people.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a></blockquote><div class="templatequotecite">— Martin E.P. Seligman, Positive Psychology: The Scientific and Practical Explorations of Human Strengths, Part 1, Chapter 1</div><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a>

<a href="Carl_Rogers" title="Carl Rogers">Carl Rogers</a> proposed a theory about humanistic psychology called <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/99704737/Rediscovering_Rogerss_Self_Theory_and_Personality">Self Concept</a>. This concept consisted of two ideas of the self. The first idea is the ideal self which describes the person we want to be. The second one is the real self which is the objective view of one self and who we really are. Rogers emphasized that healthy development is when the real self and the ideal self are accurate. Incongruence is what Rogers described to be when the real self and the ideal self are not accurate in their viewings. The ideal self is not lowered in order to compensate for the real self, but the real self is lifted by the ideal self in order to achieve healthy development.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a>

It is important to note that real lasting personal development is only achieved through meaningful and lasting accomplishments. <a href="Viktor_Frankl" title="Viktor Frankl">Viktor Frankl</a> emphasized this by stating "Genuine and lasting well-being is the result of a "life well-lived<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a>". In an article written by Ugur, H., Constantinescu, P.M., & Stevens, M.J. (2015)<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> they described that society has taught us to create positive illusions that give the appearance of positive development but are only effective in the short term. Additionally, they give two examples of personal development. The first is hedonic well-being which is the pursuit of pleasurable experiences that lead to increased personal happiness. The second is eudaimonic well-being which is living life by making choices that are congruent with authentic being.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Social_psychology">Social psychology</h4></div>

Social psychology<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> heavily emphasizes and focuses on human behavior and how individuals interact with others in society.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> Infants develop socially by creating trusting and dependent relationships with others—namely parental figures. They learn how to act and treat other people based on the example of parental figures and other adults they interact with often.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> Toddlers further develop social skills. Additionally, they begin to gain a desire for autonomy and grow more and more independent as they grow older. The balance of social involvement and autonomy varies per person, but normally autonomous behavior increases with age. Some studies suggest that selfishness begins to diminish, and <a href="Prosocial_behavior" title="Prosocial behavior">prosocial behaviors</a> increase, between the ages of six years old to twelve years old.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> Additionally, the years of adulthood are times of development—self-actualization, relational and occupational development, loss, and coping skills development, etc.—affected by those around us: parents, co-workers, romantic partners, and children. Social psychology draws from many other psychological theories and principles yet views them through a lens of social interaction.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Psychodynamic_psychology">Psychodynamic psychology</h4></div>

The <a href="Psychodynamics" title="Psychodynamics">psychodynamic</a> view of personal development varies from other perspectives. Namely, that the development of our traits, personalities, and thinking patterns are predominantly subconscious.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> Psychodynamic theory suggests these subconscious changes—which emerge as external actions—are formed from suppressed sexual and aggressive urges and other internalized conflicts.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> <a href="Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Sigmund Freud</a> and other notable psychodynamic theorists postulate that these repressed cognitions form during childhood and adolescence. Conscious development would then be "digging up" these repressed memories and feelings. Once repressed memories and emotions are discovered, an individual can sift through them and receive healthy closure.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> Much, if not all, of conscious development occurs with the aid of a trained psychodynamic therapist.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cognitive-behavioral_psychology">Cognitive-behavioral psychology</h4></div>

Cognitive-behavioral views on personal development follow traditional patterns of personal development: <a href="Behavior_modification" title="Behavior modification">behavior modification</a>, cognitive reframing, and successive approximation being some of the more notable techniques.<a href="#cite_note-:1-54">[54]</a> An individual is seen as in control of their actions and their thoughts, though self-mastery is required. With behavior modification, individuals will develop personal skills and traits by altering their behavior independent of their emotions.<a href="#cite_note-:1-54">[54]</a> For example, a person may feel intense anger but would still behave in a positive manner. They are able to suppress their emotions and act in a more socially acceptable way. The accumulation of these efforts would change the person into a more patient individual. <a href="Cognitive_reframing" title="Cognitive reframing">Cognitive reframing</a> plays an instrumental role in personal development.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> <a href="Cognitive_behavioral_therapy" title="Cognitive behavioral therapy">Cognitive-behavioral</a> psychologists believe that how we view events is more important than the event itself. Thus, if one can view negative events in beneficial ways, they can progress and develop with fewer setbacks.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> Successive approximation—or <a href="Shaping_(psychology)" title="Shaping (psychology)">shaping</a>—most closely aligns with personal development. Successive approximation is when one desires a final result but takes incremental steps to achieve the result. Normally, each successful step towards the final goal is rewarded until the goal is achieved. Personal development, if it is to be long-lasting, is achieved incrementally.<a href="#cite_note-:1-54">[54]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Educational_psychology">Educational psychology</h4></div>

<a href="Educational_psychology" title="Educational psychology">Educational psychology</a> focuses on the human learning experience: learning and teaching methods, aptitude testing, and so on.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> Educational psychology seeks to further personal development by increasing one's ability to learn, retain information, and apply knowledge to real-world experiences. If one is able to increase efficacious learning, they are better equipped for personal development.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_education">Early education</h3></div>

<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://publications.aap.org/pediatrics/article/140/2/e20171488/38652/Quality-Early-Education-and-Child-Care-From-Birth?autologincheck=redirected">Education offers children</a> the opportunity to begin personal development at a young age. The curriculum taught at school must be carefully planned and managed in order to successfully promote personal development.<a href="#cite_note-:2-58">[58]</a> Providing an environment for children that allows for quality social relationships to be made and clearly communicated objectives and aims is key to their development. If early education fails to meet these qualifications, it can greatly stunt development in children, hindering their success in education as well as society. They can fall behind in development compared to peers of the same age group.<a href="#cite_note-:2-58">[58]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Higher_education">Higher education</h3></div>

During the 1960s a large increase in the number of students on American campuses<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> led to research on the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pulitzercenter.org/stories/rise-importance-personal-development-education-higher-education">personal development needs of undergraduate students.</a> <a href="Arthur_W._Chickering" title="Arthur W. Chickering">Arthur Chickering</a> defined <a href="Chickering's_theory_of_identity_development" title="Chickering's theory of identity development">seven vectors of personal development</a><a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> for young adults during their undergraduate years:

<ol><li>Developing competence</li>

<li>Managing <a href="Emotion" title="Emotion">emotions</a></li>

<li>Achieving <a href="Autonomy" title="Autonomy">autonomy</a> and <a href="Interdependence" class="mw-redirect" title="Interdependence">interdependence</a></li>

<li>Developing mature <a href="Interpersonal_relationship" title="Interpersonal relationship">interpersonal relationships</a></li>

<li>Establishing <a href="Personal_identity" title="Personal identity">personal identity</a></li>

<li>Developing purpose</li>

<li>Developing <a href="Integrity" title="Integrity">integrity</a></li></ol>

In the UK, personal development took a central place in university policy in 1997 when the <a href="Dearing_Report" title="Dearing Report">Dearing Report</a><a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> declared that universities should go beyond academic teaching to provide students with personal development.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> In 2001 a Quality Assessment Agency for UK universities produced guidelines<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> for universities to enhance personal development as:

<ul><li>a structured and supported process undertaken by an individual to reflect upon their own learning, performance and/or achievement and to plan for their personal, educational and career development;</li>

<li>objectives related explicitly to student development; to improve the capacity of students to understand what and how they are learning, and to review, plan and take responsibility for their own learning</li></ul>

In the 1990s, <a href="Business_school" title="Business school">business schools</a> began to set up specific personal-development programs for <a href="Leadership" title="Leadership">leadership</a> and career orientation and in 1998 the <a href="European_Foundation_for_Management_Development" title="European Foundation for Management Development">European Foundation for Management Development</a> set up the <a href="European_Quality_Improvement_System" class="mw-redirect" title="European Quality Improvement System">EQUIS</a> accreditation system which specified that personal development must form part of the learning process through internships, working on team projects and going abroad for work or exchange programs.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a>

The first personal development certification required for business school graduation originated in 2002 as a partnership between Metizo, a personal-development consulting firm, and the Euromed Management School<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> in Marseilles: students must not only complete assignments but also demonstrate self-awareness and achievement of personal-development competencies.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a>

As an academic department, personal development as a specific discipline is often associated with business schools.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> As an area of research, personal development draws on links to other academic disciplines:

<ul><li><a href="Education" title="Education">Education</a> for questions of learning and assessment</li>

<li>Psychology for motivation and personality</li>

<li><a href="Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a> for identity and social networks</li>

<li><a href="Economics" title="Economics">Economics</a> for human capital and economic value</li>

<li>Philosophy for ethics and self-reflection</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Developmental_activities">Developmental activities</h3></div>

Personal Development can include gaining self-awareness of the course of one's lifespan. It includes multiple definitions but is different from self knowledge. Self-awareness is more in depth and explores the conscious and unconscious aspects of ourselves. We are able to gain self-awareness through socializing and communicating according to the social behaviorism view. Self-awareness can also be a positive intrapersonal experience where one is able to reflect during a moment of action or past actions. Becoming more self aware can help us to increase our emotional intelligence, leadership skills, and performance.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_workplace">The workplace</h3></div>

<a href="Abraham_Maslow" title="Abraham Maslow">Abraham Maslow</a> (1908–1970), proposed a <a href="Maslow's_hierarchy_of_needs" title="Maslow's hierarchy of needs">hierarchy of needs</a> with <a href="Self_actualization" class="mw-redirect" title="Self actualization">self actualization</a> at the top, defined as "the desire to become more and more what one is, to become everything that one is capable of becoming". In other words, self actualization is the ambition to become a better version of oneself, to become everything one is capable of being.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a>

Since Maslow himself believed that only a small minority of people <a href="Self-actualization" title="Self-actualization">self-actualize</a>—he estimated one percent<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a>—his hierarchy of needs had the consequence that organizations came to regard self-actualization or personal development as occurring at the top of the organizational pyramid, while openness and job security in the workplace would fulfill the needs of the mass of employees.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a>

As organizations and labor markets became more global, <a href="Moral_responsibility" title="Moral responsibility">responsibility</a> for development shifted from the company to the individual. In 1999 management thinker <a href="Peter_Drucker" title="Peter Drucker">Peter Drucker</a> wrote in the <a href="Harvard_Business_Review" title="Harvard Business Review">Harvard Business Review</a>:

<blockquote class="templatequote">We live in an age of unprecedented opportunity: if you've got ambition and smarts, you can rise to the top of your chosen profession, regardless of where you started out. But with opportunity comes responsibility. Companies today aren't managing their employees' careers; <a href="Knowledge_worker" title="Knowledge worker">knowledge workers</a> must, effectively, be their own chief executive officers. It's up to you to carve out your place, to know when to change course, and to keep yourself engaged and productive during a work life that may span some 50 years.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a></blockquote>

Management professors <a href="Sumantra_Ghoshal" title="Sumantra Ghoshal">Sumantra Ghoshal</a> of the London Business School and <a href="Christopher_Bartlett" class="mw-redirect" title="Christopher Bartlett">Christopher Bartlett</a> of the Harvard Business School wrote in 1997 that companies must manage people individually and establish a new work contract.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> On the one hand, the company must allegedly recognize that personal development creates economic value: "market performance flows not from the omnipotent wisdom of top managers but from the initiative, creativity and skills of all employees".<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> On the other hand, employees should recognize that their work includes personal development and "embrace the invigorating force of continuous learning and personal development".<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a>

The 1997 publication of Ghoshal's and Bartlett's Individualized Corporation corresponded to a change in <a href="Career_development" title="Career development">career development</a> from a system of predefined paths defined by companies, to a strategy defined by the individual and matched to the needs of organizations in an open landscape of possibilities.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> Another contribution to the study of career development came with the recognition that women's careers show specific personal needs and different development paths from men. The 2007 study of women's careers by Sylvia Ann Hewlett Off-Ramps and On-Ramps<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> had a major impact on the way companies view careers.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> Further work on the career as a personal development process came from study by Herminia Ibarra in her Working Identity on the relationship with career change and identity change,<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> indicating that priorities of <a href="Employment" title="Employment">work</a> and lifestyle continually develop through life.

Personal development programs in companies fall into two categories: the provision of <a href="Employee_benefit" class="mw-redirect" title="Employee benefit">employee benefits</a> and the fostering of development strategies.

Employee surveys may help organizations find out personal-development needs, preferences and problems, and they use the results to design benefits programs.<a href="#cite_note-:3-83">[83]</a> Typical programs in this category include:<a href="#cite_note-:3-83">[83]</a>

<ul><li>Work-life balance</li>

<li><a href="Time_management" title="Time management">Time management</a></li>

<li><a href="Stress_management" title="Stress management">Stress management</a></li>

<li>Health programs</li>

<li><a href="Counseling" class="mw-redirect" title="Counseling">Counseling</a></li></ul>

As an investment, personal development programs have the goal of increasing human capital or improving <a href="Productivity" title="Productivity">productivity</a>, innovation or quality. Proponents actually see such programs not as a cost but as an investment with results linked to an organization's strategic development goals.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> Employees gain access to these investment-oriented programs by selection according to the value and future potential of the employee, usually defined in a <a href="Talent_management" title="Talent management">talent management</a> architecture including populations such as new hires, perceived high-potential employees, perceived key employees, sales staff, research staff and perceived future leaders.<a href="#cite_note-:3-83">[83]</a> Organizations may also offer other (non-investment-oriented) programs to many or even all employees. Personal development also forms an element in management tools such as personal development planning, assessing one's level of ability using a <a href="Competence_(human_resources)" title="Competence (human resources)">competency</a> grid, or getting feedback from a <a href="360-degree_feedback" title="360-degree feedback">360 questionnaire</a> filled in by colleagues at different levels in the organization.<a href="#cite_note-:3-83">[83]</a>

A common criticism<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> surrounding personal development programs is that they are often treated as an arbitrary performance management tool to pay lip service to, but ultimately ignored. As such, many companies have decided to replace personal development programs with SMART Personal Development Objectives, which are regularly reviewed and updated. Personal Development Objectives help employees achieve career goals and improve overall performance.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Criticism">Criticism</h3></div>

Scholars have targeted self-help claims as misleading and incorrect. In 2005, <a href="Steve_Salerno" title="Steve Salerno">Steve Salerno</a> portrayed the American self-help movement—he uses the acronym "SHAM": the "Self-Help and Actualization Movement"—not only as ineffective in achieving its goals but also as socially harmful, and that self-help customers keep investing more money in these services regardless of their effectiveness.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> Others similarly point out that with self-help books "supply increases the demand ... The more people read them, the more they think they need them ... more like an <a href="Addiction" title="Addiction">addiction</a> than an alliance".<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a>

Self-help writers have been described as working "in the area of the <a href="Ideological" class="mw-redirect" title="Ideological">ideological</a>, the <a href="Imagination" title="Imagination">imagined</a>, the narrativized. ... although a veneer of <a href="Scientism" title="Scientism">scientism</a> permeates the[ir] work, there is also an underlying armature of <a href="Moralizing" class="mw-redirect" title="Moralizing">moralizing</a>".<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a>

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<ul><li><a href="Coaching" title="Coaching">Coaching</a></li>

<li><a href="End-of-history_illusion" title="End-of-history illusion">End-of-history illusion</a></li>

<li><a href="Holland_Codes" title="Holland Codes">Holland Codes</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_Potential_Movement" title="Human Potential Movement">Human Potential Movement</a></li>

<li><a href="Know_thyself" title="Know thyself">Know thyself</a></li>

<li><a href="Life_planning" class="mw-redirect" title="Life planning">Life planning</a></li>

<li><a href="Life_skills" title="Life skills">Life skills</a></li>

<li><a href="Micropsychoanalysis" title="Micropsychoanalysis">Micropsychoanalysis</a></li>

<li><a href="Self-discovery" title="Self-discovery">Self-discovery</a></li>

<li><a href="Training_and_development" title="Training and development">Training and development</a></li>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> Linley, P. A., & Joseph, S. (2004). Positive Psychology in Practice. Wiley.

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<li id="cite_note-:4-10">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_10-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_10-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFPhenix1982" class="citation journal cs1">Phenix, Philip H. (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177/016146818208400206">"Promoting Personal Development through Teaching"</a>. Teachers College Record: The Voice of Scholarship in Education. 84 (2): 301–316. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F016146818208400206">10.1177/016146818208400206</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0161-4681">0161-4681</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:140791247">140791247</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221101133427/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/016146818208400206">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-11-01. Retrieved 2022-03-13.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> Bob Aubrey, Measure of Man: leading human development McGraw-Hill 2016 <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-9814660648</bdi>, p. 15

</li>

<li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFObadaraAbatan2014" class="citation journal cs1">Obadara, Olabanji E.; Abatan, O. Luke (2014-03-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.richtmann.org/journal/index.php/ajis/article/view/2103">"Indigenous Occupational Practices and Apprenticeship: Implications for Personal Development of Youths in South-West Nigeria"</a>. Academic Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5901%2Fajis.2014.v3n1p393">10.5901/ajis.2014.v3n1p393</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> Some sources recognize personal development as an "industry": see, for example: <cite id="CITEREFCullen2009" class="citation journal cs1">Cullen, John G. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eprints.maynoothuniversity.ie/2603/1/JC_How_to_Sell_Your_Soul_Preprint.pdf">"How to sell your soul and still get into Heaven: Steven Covey's epiphany-inducing technology of effective selfhood"</a> (PDF). <a href="Human_Relations_(journal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Human Relations (journal)">Human Relations</a>. 62 (8). Sage Publications: 1231–1254. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0018726709334493">10.1177/0018726709334493</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0018-7267">0018-7267</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145181366">145181366</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170812213510/http://eprints.maynoothuniversity.ie/2603/1/JC_How_to_Sell_Your_Soul_Preprint.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 2017-08-12. Retrieved 2019-12-08. <q>The growth of the personal development industry and its gurus continues to be resisted across a number of genres.</q></cite> And: <cite id="CITEREFGrantBlythe_O'Hara2006" class="citation journal cs1">Grant, Anthony M.; Blythe O'Hara (November 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bps.org.uk/downloadfile.cfm?file_uuid=4DD51349-1143-DFD0-7EE9-5CC2B0B1DAAE">"The self-presentation of commercial Australian life coaching schools: Cause for concern?"</a> (PDF). International Coaching Psychology Review. 1 (2). Leicester: <a href="British_Psychological_Society" title="British Psychological Society">The British Psychological Society</a>: 21–33 [29]. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.53841%2Fbpsicpr.2006.1.2.21">10.53841/bpsicpr.2006.1.2.21</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1750-2764">1750-2764</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:79131666">79131666</a>. Retrieved 2010-04-28. <q>... much of the commercial life coaching and personal development industry is grounded more on hyperbole and rhetoric than solid behavioural science (Grant, 2001) ...</q></cite> And: <cite id="CITEREFGrantMichael_J._Cavanagh2007" class="citation journal cs1">Grant, Anthony M.; Michael J. Cavanagh (December 2007). "Evidence-based coaching: Flourishing or languishing?". Australian Psychologist. 42 (4). <a href="Australian_Psychological_Society" title="Australian Psychological Society">Australian Psychological Society</a>: 239–254. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00050060701648175">10.1080/00050060701648175</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1742-9544">1742-9544</a>. <q>To flourish, coaching psychology needs to remain clearly differentiated from the frequently sensationalistic and pseudoscientific facets of the personal development industry while at the same time engaging in the development of the wider coaching industry.</q></cite>

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<li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFLinton" class="citation web cs1">Linton, Ian. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://smallbusiness.chron.com/differences-between-b2c-b2b-business-systems-39922.html">"Differences Between B2C & B2B in Business Systems"</a>. Small Business – Chron.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211120224757/https://smallbusiness.chron.com/differences-between-b2c-b2b-business-systems-39922.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-11-20. Retrieved 2021-11-20.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hbr.org/1991/01/marketing-is-everything">"Marketing Is Everything"</a>. Harvard Business Review. 1991-01-01. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0017-8012">0017-8012</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201219020423/https://hbr.org/1991/01/marketing-is-everything">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-12-19. Retrieved 2020-12-10.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.grandviewresearch.com/industry-analysis/personal-development-market">"Personal Development Market Size Report, 2020–2027"</a>. www.grandviewresearch.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201128040938/https://www.grandviewresearch.com/industry-analysis/personal-development-market">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-11-28. Retrieved 2020-12-10.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFFoucault1986" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault, Michel</a>, ed. (1986). Care of the Self. Vol. 2. Random House.</cite> Translated from the French Le Souci de Soi editions Gallimard 1984. Part Two of Foucault's book describes the technique of caring for the soul falling in the category of epimeleia from the Greek to the classic Roman period and on into the early stages of the age of Christianity.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFvan_der_Kooijde_RuyterMiedema2015" class="citation journal cs1">van der Kooij, Jacomijn C.; de Ruyter, Doret J.; Miedema, Siebren (2015-07-03). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/03057240.2015.1048790">"The influence of moral education on the personal worldview of students"</a>. Journal of Moral Education. 44 (3): 346–363. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F03057240.2015.1048790">10.1080/03057240.2015.1048790</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0305-7240">0305-7240</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:17075284">17075284</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230904010646/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/03057240.2015.1048790">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-09-04. Retrieved 2021-05-05.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> For example: <cite id="CITEREFSinghvi2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Laxmi_Mall_Singhvi" title="Laxmi Mall Singhvi">Singhvi, L.M.</a> (2003). "Jainism". In <a href="Martin_Palmer" title="Martin Palmer">Palmer, Martin</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wbvw7YQ2Y2MC">Faith in Conservation: New Approaches to Religions and the Environment</a>. World Bank Directions in Development. Washington, DC: World Bank Publications. pp. 107–108. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0821355596</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240206235558/https://books.google.com/books?id=wbvw7YQ2Y2MC">Archived</a> from the original on 6 February 2024. Retrieved 20 September 2020. <q><a href="Jainism" title="Jainism">Jains</a> believe that to attain the higher stages of personal development, lay people must adhere to the three jewels (rarna-traya), namely, enlightened worldview, true knowledge, and conduct based on enlightened worldview and true knowledge.</q></cite>

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<li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> For example: <cite id="CITEREFHershock2005" class="citation book cs1">Hershock, Peter D. (2005). "The Buddhist Roots of Chan". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=63ju9rReeC8C">Chan Buddhism</a>. Dimensions of Asian spirituality. Vol. 2. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. p. 26. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0824828356</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240206235558/https://books.google.com/books?id=63ju9rReeC8C">Archived</a> from the original on 6 February 2024. Retrieved 20 September 2020. <q>The <a href="Theravada" title="Theravada">Theravada</a> takes the <a href="Arhat" title="Arhat">arhat</a>, or 'saint,' to be the ideal of personal development—a <a href="Buddhist" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist">Buddhist</a> practitioner who has realized the cessation of all entangling forms of thought and action, and who has stopped making any <a href="Karma_in_Buddhism" title="Karma in Buddhism">karma</a> that would continue to spin the wheel of birth and death.</q></cite>

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<li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> For example: <cite id="CITEREFMansukhani1968" class="citation book cs1">Mansukhani, Gobind Singh (1968). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eM5BAQAAIAAJ">Introduction to Sikhism: 100 Basic Questions and Answers on Sikh Religion and History</a> (2nd ed.). India Book House. p. 60. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240206235559/https://books.google.com/books?id=eM5BAQAAIAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 6 February 2024. Retrieved 20 September 2020. <q>What are the stages in spiritual development, according to Sikhism? Spiritual attainment is a matter of personal development.</q></cite>

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<li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> For example:<cite id="CITEREFScheid2016" class="citation book cs1">Scheid, Daniel P. (2016). "Hindu Traditions: Dharmic Ecology". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=r9XNCgAAQBAJ">The Cosmic Common Good: Religious Grounds for Ecological Ethics</a>. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 128. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0199359431</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240206235559/https://books.google.com/books?id=r9XNCgAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 6 February 2024. Retrieved 20 September 2020. <q>Dharma encompasses a theory of virtue and personal development, as well as stipulating detailed ethical rules and the religious obligations one must fulfil.</q></cite>

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<li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFVentegodtJoav_MerrickNiels_Jørgen_Andersen2003" class="citation journal cs1">Ventegodt, Søren; Joav Merrick; Niels Jørgen Andersen (Oct 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5974881">"Quality of Life Theory III. Maslow Revisited"</a>. <a href="The_Scientific_World_Journal" title="The Scientific World Journal">The Scientific World Journal</a>. 3 (3). Finland: Corpus Alienum Oy: 1050–1057. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1100%2Ftsw.2003.84">10.1100/tsw.2003.84</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1537-744X">1537-744X</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5974881">5974881</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14570995">14570995</a>. <q>In ancient India people talked about reaching the level of existence called 'sat-sit-ananda': beingness, wisdom and happiness as one.</q></cite>

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<li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFOliver2014" class="citation book cs1">Oliver, Paul (2014). "Yoga, mysticism and spiritual consciousness". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XlmCBAAAQBAJ">Hinduism and the 1960s: The Rise of a Counter-Culture</a>. London: Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 132. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1472530783</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240206235559/https://books.google.com/books?id=XlmCBAAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 6 February 2024. Retrieved 20 September 2020. <q>Young people of [the 1960s] ... sought philosophies and world views which emphasized the internal life and the search for personal development. This perhaps explains the attraction of Indian religious experience at the time in the sense that it focused less on adherence to scriptures and formal teachings and more on the personal spiritual search of the individual.</q></cite>

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<li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFMahmoodArshadAhmedAkhtar2018" class="citation journal cs1">Mahmood, Arshad; Arshad, Mohd Anuar; Ahmed, Adeel; Akhtar, Sohail; Khan, Shahid (2018-06-04). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1108/mrr-03-2017-0073">"Spiritual intelligence research within human resource development: a thematic review"</a>. Management Research Review. 41 (8): 987–1006. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1108%2Fmrr-03-2017-0073">10.1108/mrr-03-2017-0073</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2040-8269">2040-8269</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:158831200">158831200</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240206235601/https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/MRR-03-2017-0073/full/html">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-02-06. Retrieved 2023-06-23.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFMurad2006" class="citation book cs1">Murad, Khurram (2006). Self Development. Pataudi House, Daryagunj, New Delhi: Adam Publishers & Distributors. pp. 8–10. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>8174354824</bdi>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> Nicomachean Ethics, translated by W.D.Ross, Basic Works of Aristotle, section 1142. Online in "The Internet Classics Archive of MIT": <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://classics.mit.edu//Aristotle/nicomachaen.html">http://classics.mit.edu//Aristotle/nicomachaen.html</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110805005346/http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/nicomachaen.html">Archived</a> 2011-08-05 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> Martha Nussbaum, The Fragility of Goodness, Cambridge University Press, discusses why the English word happiness does not describe Aristotle's concept of eudaimonia, pp. 1–6.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> Nobel Prize winner Amartya Sen identifies economic development with Aristotle's concepts of individual development in his co-authored book written with Aristotle scholar Nussbaum: <cite id="CITEREFNussbaumSen1993" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum, Martha</a>; <a href="Amartya_Sen" title="Amartya Sen">Sen, Amartya</a>, eds. (1993). The Quality of Life. Oxford: Clarendon Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0198283959</bdi>.</cite> And in his general book published a year after receiving the <a href="Nobel_Memorial_Prize_in_Economic_Sciences" title="Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences">Nobel Prize in Economics</a> in 1998: <cite id="CITEREFSen1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Amartya_Sen" title="Amartya Sen">Sen, Amartya</a> (1999). Development as Freedom. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> Daniel Seligman explicitly identifies the goals of positive psychology with Aristotle's idea of the "Good Life" and eudaimonia in Seligman, Martin E.P. (2002). Authentic Happiness: Using the New Positive Psychology to Realize Your Potential for Lasting Fulfillment.New York: Free Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0743222970</bdi> (Paperback ed., Free Press, 2004, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0743222989</bdi>).

</li>

<li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFMarshall" class="citation book cs1">Marshall, Chris. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.fr/Hack-your-brain-change-English-ebook/dp/B07D1P49BJ/">Hack your brain: Rapid way to change</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180517152902/https://www.amazon.fr/Hack-your-brain-change-English-ebook/dp/B07D1P49BJ">Archived</a> from the original on 2018-05-17. Retrieved 2018-05-16.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> Confucius, Great Learning, translated by James Legge. Provided <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://classics.mit.edu/Confucius/learning.html">online in The Internet Classics Archive of MIT</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110805010438/http://classics.mit.edu/Confucius/learning.html">Archived</a> 2011-08-05 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> Hizi, Gil. (2024) Self-Development Ethics and Politics in China Today: A keyword approach. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-:0-34">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_34-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_34-1">b</a> Heinz Ansbacher and Rowena R Ansbacher (1964), Individual Psychology of Alfred Adler, Basic Books, 1956. See especially chapter 3 on Finalism and Fiction and chapter 7 on the Style of Life.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> Lockwood, N.R. (2003). Work/life balance. Challenges and Solutions, SHRM Research, USA, 2–10.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> Jung saw individuation as a process of psychological differentiation, having for its goal the development of the individual personality. C.G. Jung. Psychological Types. Collected Works, Vol. 6., par. 757.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> Daniel Levinson, Seasons of a Man's Life, Ballantine Press, 1978, pp. 91–92.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> Albert Bandura (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: Freeman.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> Albert Bandura, Self-Efficacy: The Exercise of Control, W.H. Freeman and Company, New York, 1998, p. 184.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFSze2015" class="citation web cs1">Sze, David (17 June 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.huffpost.com/entry/the-father-of-positive-ps_b_7600226">"The Father of Positive Psychology and His Two Theories of Happiness"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200811010938/https://www.huffpost.com/entry/the-father-of-positive-ps_b_7600226">Archived</a> from the original on 11 August 2020. Retrieved 7 December 2019.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://positivepsychology.com/who-is-martin-seligman/">"Who is Martin Seligman and What Does He Do?"</a>. 20 September 2016. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201012114507/https://positivepsychology.com/who-is-martin-seligman/">Archived</a> from the original on 12 October 2020. Retrieved 7 October 2020.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> Martin Seligman, "Building Human Strength: Psychology's Forgotten Mission", Vol. 29, No. 1, January 1998

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<li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> See for example the figures for Cuba: <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ccsr.ac.uk/cuba/cepde2004/CD_EDUCACION/EDUCACION/TABLA_24hasta32.htm">"Educación Superior"</a>. Cuban Statistics and Related Publications. Centro de Estudios de Población y Desarrollo de la Oficina Nacional de Estadísticas. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080624031835/http://www.ccsr.ac.uk/cuba/cepde2004/CD_EDUCACION/EDUCACION/TABLA_24hasta32.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2008-06-24. Retrieved 2009-07-17.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> The Dearing Report of 1997: see the Leeds University website: <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.leeds.ac.uk/educol/ncihe/">http://www.leeds.ac.uk/educol/ncihe/</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101221190134/http://www.leeds.ac.uk/educol/ncihe/">Archived</a> 2010-12-21 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>

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<li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> These definitions and guidelines appear on the UK Academy of Higher Education website: <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081220225403/http://www.heacademy.ac.uk/ourwork/learning/pdp">"Higher Education Academy – Personal development planning (PDP) page"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.heacademy.ac.uk/ourwork/learning/pdp">the original</a> on 2008-12-20. Retrieved 2008-12-20.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFHedmo,_Sahlin-Andersson_&_Wedlin" class="citation cs2">Hedmo, Sahlin-Andersson & Wedlin, Tina, Kerstin & Linda, The Emergence of a European Regulatory Field of Management Education – Standardizing Through Accreditation, Ranking and Guidelines, Stockholm Center for Organizational Research: Stockholm University, <a href="CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.198.3080">10.1.1.198.3080</a></cite><code class="cs1-code">{{citation}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: publisher location (link)

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<li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> The components of Euromed Management School's personal development programs appear on the school's website: <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090218154706/http://www.euromed-management.com/default.aspx?rub=582">"Euromed Management's teaching approach – School of Management"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.euromed-management.com/default.aspx?rub=582">the original</a> on 2009-02-18. Retrieved 2009-02-18.</cite>

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